“用户:Grotton JXz Donbrako/Psychology/Chapter 2”的版本间的差异
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**"If I am studying whether the amount of time spent studying is associated with better grades, what are variables that '''may influence this relationship''' other than studying?" | **"If I am studying whether the amount of time spent studying is associated with better grades, what are variables that '''may influence this relationship''' other than studying?" | ||
---- | ---- | ||
− | + | ===Groups=== | |
+ | *An experiment must have a control group and an experimental group. | ||
+ | *'''The control group is the group that does not receive the independent variable.''' | ||
+ | *'''The experimental group is that which receives the independent variable.''' | ||
+ | **"Drinking coffee before running makes one run faster." | ||
+ | **After gathering a sample, '''who''' is my '''experimental group''' and '''who''' is '''control group'''? | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | ===Terms=== | ||
+ | *'''Assignment''': Assignment is the process by which participants are put into a group, experimental or control. | ||
+ | *'''Random assignment''': The process of randomly assigning participants to either the control or experimental group. | ||
+ | *'''Participant-relevant confounding variables''': If participants were given the opportunity to choose which group to be in, the results might become biased. | ||
+ | **''What if in my coffee experiment, I allow participants to join which ever group they want?'' | ||
+ | *'''Group-matching''': If one wanted to match for sexual orientation, eye color, skin color, or something other variable, then group matching is '''the process of assigning individuals to groups''' based on some criteria. | ||
+ | *'''Situation-relevant confounding variables''': When conducting an experiment, both groups (experimental and control) must be subject to the '''same environment'''. | ||
+ | *'''Experimental Bias''': The tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently. | ||
+ | **If the aim of my study is confirm my hypothesis, I may interpret the results differently than someone who is not involved or does not have an interest. | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | ===Controlling for Bias (Experimental Designs)=== | ||
+ | *'''Single Blind''': Participants do not know whether they're in the experimental group or the control group. | ||
+ | *'''Double Blind''': Neither the participants nor the research knows who is in which group. | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | ===Placebo=== | ||
+ | *'''Placebo''' is a substance that has no therapeutic effect; it is often used in control groups for testing new drugs. | ||
+ | *'''Placebo effect''': Participants feel a "psychological" effect, but have not been given a real substance that would cause “real” physiological differences in their body. | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | ===Correlational Method=== | ||
+ | *'''Correlation''' is a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two or more variable fluctuate together. | ||
+ | *A correlation expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing a cause. | ||
+ | *'''Correlation does not equal causation.''' | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | <img src="https://i0.wp.com/theintactone.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2.1-3.jpg" /> | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | *A '''positive correlation''' between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other. | ||
+ | *A '''negative correlation''' means that the presence of one thing predicts the absences of the other. | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | *Predict the correlation | ||
+ | **Drinking water and feeling thirsty | ||
+ | **Studying and amount of free time | ||
+ | **Colour of t-shirt worn on exam day and exam grade | ||
+ | **Number of hours spent studying and grades | ||
+ | **Amount of coffee drunk and talkativeness | ||
+ | **Staying up all night and fatigue | ||
+ | **Number of fictional novels read and driving ability | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | *"Why use correlations, why not always conduct an experiment?" | ||
+ | *Sometimes correlations are the best research method because you '''cannot manipulate the data''' in an experiment. | ||
+ | **Does weather have an effect on shop lifting? Is there any way we can manipulate the weather? | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | ===Survey=== | ||
+ | *Conducting a survey involves ''asking participants to complete a questionnaire''. | ||
+ | *Using the survey method means that one ''cannot control'' for certain confounding variables. | ||
+ | *Survey method is subject to the social '''desirability effect''': the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | ===Naturalistic observation=== | ||
+ | *'''Naturalistic observation''': Researchers go out and observe participants in their natural habitat without interfering at all | ||
+ | *'''Naturalistic observation''' is different from field experiments because in naturalistic observation, researchers ''do not interfere''. | ||
+ | ---- | ||
+ | ===Case Studies=== | ||
+ | *The '''case study method''' is often used in '''clinical psychology'''. | ||
+ | *'''Case studies''' allow researchers to get a picture of a small group of people (as little as one), but this means that the findings ''cannot be generalized'' to any population. | ||
+ | *An example of a case studies may be studying a rare psychological disorder. | ||
+ | ---- | ||
(待补充) | (待补充) |
2022年2月11日 (五) 10:56的版本
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正文
Research Methods
- "How do you do research in psychology?"
- Psychology uses the scientific process:
- Question
- Hypothesis
- Prediction
- Data
- Interpretation
- Hindsight bias is the tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted.
- However, the goal of science is to be predictive; that is, determine an outcome before it happens, not after.
- Research question:
- What are some relationships between these variables
- Coffee intake and running speed?
- Showering and body odor?
- Studying and grades?
- Mass of an object and its gravitational force?
- Hypothesis: Usually an ‘if, then’ statement or simply a prediction about some event.
- "If people are given money, they experience greater happiness than if given candy."
- ↑How do we measure happiness?
- Independent variable: The variable that influences the dependent variable.
- Dependent variable: A variable that depends on the independent variable.
- Theory: aims to explain a broad set of phenomenon.
- Operational Definitions:Definitions of variables in research need to be quantifiable and observable. They need to be operationally defined.
- "Research aims to be valid and reliable"
- Validity refers to whether the research measures what the researchers set out to measure.
- "If you have a scale, and it says you weigh 100lbs., but on every other scale you step on, the scale says 180lbs., the scale would not be a ‘valid’ measure of your weight."
- Reliability refers to whether the same results can be produced under similar conditions.
- "If you stepped on the scale and it said 100lbs., and then five minutes later stepped on the same scale again, and it said 130lbs., the scale would not be a ‘reliable’ measure of your weight."
- Validity refers to whether the research measures what the researchers set out to measure.
- Participants are the people or subjects in your study.
- Sampling: The selection of participants.
- Population is the large set of individuals from which a sample was taken.
- Representative: A sample that accurately reflects the larger population.
- "Wearing a red shirt in a large crowd gets you more attention."
- What is my hypothesis?
- What must be operationally defined?
- Who is my sample?
- Who is my population?
- Is the sample representative?
- Random Selection means that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
- How could we randomly select in the previous example?
- Stratified Sampling: A process that allows a researcher to ensure the sample represents the population on some criteria.
- If I want to research whether different racial groups respond differently to a survey, I could select 10 Caucasians, 10 Asians, 10 African Americans…
- Psychologists prefer experiments because they can establish a cause-effect relationship.
- Laboratory Experiments are conducted in a lab.
- Field Experiments are conducted in the ‘real’ world. Researchers go out and manipulate some variable and observe the effect.
- Confounding variable: A confounding variable is any difference between the experimental controls and the control conditions, except for the independent variable, that might affect the dependent variable.
- A researcher must try to isolate variables or control for “confounding variables”
- "If I am studying whether the amount of time spent studying is associated with better grades, what are variables that may influence this relationship other than studying?"
Groups
- An experiment must have a control group and an experimental group.
- The control group is the group that does not receive the independent variable.
- The experimental group is that which receives the independent variable.
- "Drinking coffee before running makes one run faster."
- After gathering a sample, who is my experimental group and who is control group?
Terms
- Assignment: Assignment is the process by which participants are put into a group, experimental or control.
- Random assignment: The process of randomly assigning participants to either the control or experimental group.
- Participant-relevant confounding variables: If participants were given the opportunity to choose which group to be in, the results might become biased.
- What if in my coffee experiment, I allow participants to join which ever group they want?
- Group-matching: If one wanted to match for sexual orientation, eye color, skin color, or something other variable, then group matching is the process of assigning individuals to groups based on some criteria.
- Situation-relevant confounding variables: When conducting an experiment, both groups (experimental and control) must be subject to the same environment.
- Experimental Bias: The tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently.
- If the aim of my study is confirm my hypothesis, I may interpret the results differently than someone who is not involved or does not have an interest.
Controlling for Bias (Experimental Designs)
- Single Blind: Participants do not know whether they're in the experimental group or the control group.
- Double Blind: Neither the participants nor the research knows who is in which group.
Placebo
- Placebo is a substance that has no therapeutic effect; it is often used in control groups for testing new drugs.
- Placebo effect: Participants feel a "psychological" effect, but have not been given a real substance that would cause “real” physiological differences in their body.
Correlational Method
- Correlation is a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two or more variable fluctuate together.
- A correlation expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing a cause.
- Correlation does not equal causation.
- A positive correlation between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other.
- A negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absences of the other.
- Predict the correlation
- Drinking water and feeling thirsty
- Studying and amount of free time
- Colour of t-shirt worn on exam day and exam grade
- Number of hours spent studying and grades
- Amount of coffee drunk and talkativeness
- Staying up all night and fatigue
- Number of fictional novels read and driving ability
- "Why use correlations, why not always conduct an experiment?"
- Sometimes correlations are the best research method because you cannot manipulate the data in an experiment.
- Does weather have an effect on shop lifting? Is there any way we can manipulate the weather?
Survey
- Conducting a survey involves asking participants to complete a questionnaire.
- Using the survey method means that one cannot control for certain confounding variables.
- Survey method is subject to the social desirability effect: the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.
Naturalistic observation
- Naturalistic observation: Researchers go out and observe participants in their natural habitat without interfering at all
- Naturalistic observation is different from field experiments because in naturalistic observation, researchers do not interfere.
Case Studies
- The case study method is often used in clinical psychology.
- Case studies allow researchers to get a picture of a small group of people (as little as one), but this means that the findings cannot be generalized to any population.
- An example of a case studies may be studying a rare psychological disorder.
(待补充)