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Cognition

• Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes.
  • Such as attention, language, memory, perception, problem solving, thinking, and creativity.

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• What is memory?
• Memory is defined as any indication that learning has persisted over time.

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Information Processing Theory

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• Information Processing Model proposes the stages that information passes through before it is stored.

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Sensory Memory

• Sensory Memory is first stage in the information processing model and is the gateway between perception and memory.

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• Iconic memory is visual sensory memory and lasts for only a few tenths of a second.
• Echoic memory is auditory sensory memory and lasts for three or four seconds.
• Items in sensory memory are constantly being replaced.

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• George Sperling Experiment
• Participants were very briefly shown a matrix of characters.
• Then a tone was sounded. Either a high tone, mid tone, or low tone.
• Then participants were asked to recall the row of characters corresponding to that tone.

A	G	S
T	E	O
X	I	V

• The experiment demonstrated that the entire grid must be held in sensory memory because participants did not know which tone would be cued.

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Short-Term Memory

• Short-term memory is the memory system responsible for the temporary storage of information.
• Units of information are stored for a duration of 10-30 seconds.

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• How many units can we hold in short-term memory?
• Let’s do a test.
  • Butterfly Multiple Furry
  • Hope Transferring Robotic
  • Disaster Guile Red Sixteen

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• George Miller researched how many units we can hold in short-term memory.
• He coined the term the magical number seven plus/minus two. You can hold roughly 7±2 units of information in short-term.
• What tricks do we use to help us store information in short-term memory?

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• Maintenance Rehearsal is simple repetition to keep an item in short-term memory until it can be used.
• Elaborative Rehearsal involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory.
• Mnemonic devices are memory aides. They are strategies to help store information.
• Chunking involves taking long strings of information, and grouping them into smaller, more manageable bits of information.
  • Examples: BEDMAS; ROY-G-BIV.
• Method of Loci: This involves imagining what you're trying to remember.
• Dual-coding hypothesis: It is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone.
• Self-reference effect: It is easier to remember things that are personally relevant.
• State-dependent memory: Information is more likely to be remembered if the attempt to retrieve it occurs in a situation similar to the situation in which in was encoded.
  • State-dependent memory also applies to information encoded while in a particular state of mind, such as when information is encoded under the influence of a drug (e.g., caffeine).

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Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memory is defined as our “permanent” storage.

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• Types of long-term memory:
• Declarative (explicit) memories: Are memories a person can consciously retrieve.
• Nondeclarative (implicit) memory: Are memories beyond conscious consideration.
• Episodic memories are of specific events, stored as a sequential series.
  • Example: The time you went and hung out with ____, and you guys went to ____, and then _____
• Semantic memories are general knowledge of the world, stored as facts or categories.
  • Example: The capital of Russia is _____
• Procedural memories are memories of skills and how to perform them.
  • Example: 给手机充电.

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• More ideas about long-term memory:
• Priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. A person who sees the word “green” will be slightly faster to recognize the word “tree.” This happens because green and tree are closely associated in memory. 
• Classical Conditioning refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (bell).

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• Declarative Memory:
  • Sematic memory
  • Episodic memory
• Nondeclarative Memory:
  • Procedural
  • Classical conditioning
  • Priming

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• Herman Ebbinghaus was a pioneer in memory research;
  • He would write out very long lists of arbitrary words and try to recall them (e.g., CUH, TIR, GHO, SWE, etc.)
• Herman Ebbinghaus is most famous for developing the learning curve and the forgetting curve.
• The learning curve described by Ebbinghaus refers to how fast one learns information.
  • The sharpest increase occurs after the first try and then gradually evens out, meaning that less and less new information is retained after each repetition.
• Forgetting Curve: You will forget information at a exponential rate at first.
  • Eventually you will only remember a small amount of what you learned, unless you practice.

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• Levels of Processing Model: Memories, in the levels of processing model, are neither short nor long term. Memories are deeply processed or shallowly processed.
• This model explains why we remember stories better than plain statements.
  • Shallowly Processed:
    • Images, sounds
  • Deeply Processed:
    • Stories

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Levels of Processing Model

• The next thing we will be discussing is our ability to recall information.
• 显示5秒后隐藏隐藏信息，然后尽你所能用笔记录记住的所有单词。

Rubber Bug Dislocate
Former Trip Mischief
Tease States Dog Obvious

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• The primacy effect predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list.
• The recency effect demonstrates our ability to recall the items at the end of list.
• Primacy and recency effect are a part of the Serial Position Effect. This is also called the serial position curve.
• Serial Position Effect is the tendency for recall to be the highest for the first and last items in a series.

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• Have you ever tried to recall something, but you just cannot say it?
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the inability to remember information you've previously stored.
• Why might this be?

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Retrieval

• Semantic Network Theory considers knowledge as semantic relations between concepts in a network. This is often used as a form of knowledge representation.

• In a semantic network, each idea is called a node and nodes are connected to one another similar to how roads are connected to cities. But the connection between the nodes are not always created equal. The strength of the connection is related to how frequently the connection is used.
• Spreading Activation: The activation of a few nodes can lead to a pattern of activation within the network that spreads onward.
• Semantic network theory may explain why the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon occurs because if a connection between two nodes is weak, we may have trouble retrieving that node of information.

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• Flashbulb Memory is a memory that is highly detailed and exceptionally vivid.
• It is said to be like a 'snapshot' of a moment that was surprising and consequential.

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• Constructed Memory, also know as Memory Reconstruction: A memory of an event that did not actually happen or is only partially fact based.
• Studies show that leading questions can easily influence us to recall false details, and questioners can create an entirely new memory by repeatedly asking insistent questions.

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Forgetting

• One cause of forgetting is natural decay. As time goes on, the memories we have fade.
• But another factor in forgetting is interference. Sometimes other information in your memory competes with what you're trying to recall.

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• Retroactive interference: Learning new information interferes with the recall of older information.
• Proactive interference: Older information learned previously interferes with the recall of information learned more recently.
• Amnesia is forgetting or the inability to encode new memories due to brain trauma or disease.
• Anterograde Amnesia is the inability to encode new memories as a result of damage to the hippocampus.
• Retrograde Amnesia is a loss of memory for events that occurred or were learned due to brain trauma or disease. But one has the ability to encode new information.

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Language

• Language and thought are interactive processes. Here we will be considering phonemes, morphemes, syntax, semantics, and the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
• Phonemes are the smallest units of sound used in language. Phonemes are studied in linguistics. An example is the English phoneme /k/, which occurs in words such as cat, kit, scat, skit.
• A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding. 
  • Examples:
  • -ed = turns a verb into the past tense
  • un- = prefix that means not
  • a
  • I
• Syntax: Is the order in which we use words.
• Semantics: Refers to word meaning or word choice.

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• Psychologist Benjamin Whorf theorized that the language we use might control and limit our thinking.
• The theory that the language we use has influence over our thinking is called the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
• For example, there are 50 Eskimo words for “snow.” This may have practical value for them.

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• Language acquisition occurs at about four months.
• Holophrastic stage (one-word stage): This is when babies speak in single words (holophrases). Usually occurs by a baby’s first birthday.
• Telegraphic speech (two-word stage): This is when toddlers will combine the words they can say into simple commands. Occurs by 18 months.
• Overgeneralization: By age three, a child knows many words, but can make mistakes by overextending the rules of language. For example, they may say “I goed to the store” or “I rided my bike.”
  • Noam Chomsky theorized that humans are born with the ability to learn a language rapidly. This inborn ability to learn language is called the language acquisition device or the nativist theory of language acquisition.
  • Chomsky proposed that there is a critical period after birth for learning language.

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Heuristic

• Algorithm: A rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula.
• A heuristic is a short cut for problem solving.
  • For example, if you were trying to guess your friend's password for their email, what are some of the first guesses that come to mind?
  • 114514
  • Name
  • Birthday

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• Availability Heuristic: Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind.
  • For example, you may see a murder on the news in a specific neighbourhood, and then conclude, when you're in that neighborhood, that you're in a highly unsafe area because the first thing that came to mind was the news clip.
• Representative Heuristic: Judging a situation or person based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind.

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Problem Solving

• Using heuristics is typically helpful but it can lead to specific problems.
• Belief Bias/Perseverance: This occurs when we maintain a belief even after evidence for the belief is contradicted.
• Confirmation Bias: This is searching for information or evidence that supports a belief instead of searching for evidence to the contrary. This can hinder problem solving and objectivity.
• Mental Set (Rigidity): This is a tendency to only see solutions that have worked in the past.
• Functional Fixedness: This is the tendency to assume that a given item is useful for only what it was designed to do.
  • Functional fixedness is opposite to creative thinking.

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Creativity

• Creativity is hard to define.
• When judging whether something is creative, we look at whether it is original or novel and whether it somehow fits the situation.
• Convergent Thinking: This is thinking pointed toward one solution. Determining the correct answer to a multiple choice question is an example.
• Divergent Thinking: This is thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question.
  • Divergent thinking is similar to brainstorming in that it involves coming up with many different ideas to solve a single problem.
  • Divergent thinking is more closely related with creativity; creative activities usually involve thinking of new ways to use what we are familiar with to create something new.

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