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本页面所转载文章出自APPsychPrep网站所分享幻灯片[1],由GJD转载。
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Research Methods

  • "How do you do research in psychology?"
  • Psychology uses the scientific process:
    • Question
    • Hypothesis
    • Prediction
    • Data
    • Interpretation

  • Hindsight bias is the tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted.
  • However, the goal of science is to be predictive; that is, determine an outcome before it happens, not after.

  • Research question:
  • What are some relationships between these variables
    • Coffee intake and running speed?
    • Showering and body odor?
    • Studying and grades?
    • Mass of an object and its gravitational force?

  • Hypothesis: Usually an ‘if, then’ statement or simply a prediction about some event.
    • "If people are given money, they experience greater happiness than if given candy."
    • ↑How do we measure happiness?
  • Independent variable: The variable that influences the dependent variable.
  • Dependent variable: A variable that depends on the independent variable.
  • Theory: aims to explain a broad set of phenomenon.
  • Operational Definitions:Definitions of variables in research need to be quantifiable and observable. They need to be operationally defined.
  • "Research aims to be valid and reliable"
    • Validity refers to whether the research measures what the researchers set out to measure.
      • "If you have a scale, and it says you weigh 100lbs., but on every other scale you step on, the scale says 180lbs., the scale would not be a ‘valid’ measure of your weight."
    • Reliability refers to whether the same results can be produced under similar conditions.
      • "If you stepped on the scale and it said 100lbs., and then five minutes later stepped on the same scale again, and it said 130lbs., the scale would not be a ‘reliable’ measure of your weight."
  • Participants are the people or subjects in your study.
  • Sampling: The selection of participants.
  • Population is the large set of individuals from which a sample was taken.
  • Representative: A sample that accurately reflects the larger population.

  • "Wearing a red shirt in a large crowd gets you more attention."
    • What is my hypothesis?
    • What must be operationally defined?
    • Who is my sample?
    • Who is my population?
    • Is the sample representative?

  • Random Selection means that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
    • How could we randomly select in the previous example?
  • Stratified Sampling: A process that allows a researcher to ensure the sample represents the population on some criteria.
    • If I want to research whether different racial groups respond differently to a survey, I could select 10 Caucasians, 10 Asians, 10 African Americans…

  • Psychologists prefer experiments because they can establish a cause-effect relationship.
    • Laboratory Experiments are conducted in a lab.
    • Field Experiments are conducted in the ‘real’ world. Researchers go out and manipulate some variable and observe the effect.

  • Confounding variable: A confounding variable is any difference between the experimental controls and the control conditions, except for the independent variable, that might affect the dependent variable.
    • A researcher must try to isolate variables or control for “confounding variables”
    • "If I am studying whether the amount of time spent studying is associated with better grades, what are variables that may influence this relationship other than studying?"

Groups

  • An experiment must have a control group and an experimental group.
  • The control group is the group that does not receive the independent variable.
  • The experimental group is that which receives the independent variable.
    • "Drinking coffee before running makes one run faster."
    • After gathering a sample, who is my experimental group and who is control group?

Terms

  • Assignment: Assignment is the process by which participants are put into a group, experimental or control.
  • Random assignment: The process of randomly assigning participants to either the control or experimental group.
  • Participant-relevant confounding variables: If participants were given the opportunity to choose which group to be in, the results might become biased.
    • What if in my coffee experiment, I allow participants to join which ever group they want?
  • Group-matching: If one wanted to match for sexual orientation, eye color, skin color, or something other variable, then group matching is the process of assigning individuals to groups based on some criteria.
  • Situation-relevant confounding variables: When conducting an experiment, both groups (experimental and control) must be subject to the same environment.
  • Experimental Bias: The tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently.
    • If the aim of my study is confirm my hypothesis, I may interpret the results differently than someone who is not involved or does not have an interest.

Controlling for Bias (Experimental Designs)

  • Single Blind: Participants do not know whether they're in the experimental group or the control group.
  • Double Blind: Neither the participants nor the research knows who is in which group.

Placebo

  • Placebo is a substance that has no therapeutic effect; it is often used in control groups for testing new drugs.
  • Placebo effect: Participants feel a "psychological" effect, but have not been given a real substance that would cause “real” physiological differences in their body.

Correlational Method

  • Correlation is a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two or more variable fluctuate together. 
  • A correlation expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing a cause.
  • Correlation does not equal causation.


  • A positive correlation between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other.
  • A negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absences of the other.

  • Predict the correlation
    • Drinking water and feeling thirsty
    • Studying and amount of free time
    • Colour of t-shirt worn on exam day and exam grade
    • Number of hours spent studying and grades
    • Amount of coffee drunk and talkativeness
    • Staying up all night and fatigue
    • Number of fictional novels read and driving ability

  • "Why use correlations, why not always conduct an experiment?"
  • Sometimes correlations are the best research method because you cannot manipulate the data in an experiment.
    • Does weather have an effect on shop lifting? Is there any way we can manipulate the weather?

Survey

  • Conducting a survey involves asking participants to complete a questionnaire.
  • Using the survey method means that one cannot control for certain confounding variables.
  • Survey method is subject to the social desirability effect: the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Naturalistic observation

  • Naturalistic observation: Researchers go out and observe participants in their natural habitat without interfering at all
  • Naturalistic observation is different from field experiments because in naturalistic observation, researchers do not interfere.

Case Studies

  • The case study method is often used in clinical psychology.
  • Case studies allow researchers to get a picture of a small group of people (as little as one), but this means that the findings cannot be generalized to any population.
  • An example of a case studies may be studying a rare psychological disorder.

American Psychological Association Ethical Guidelines

  • Ethical considerations are a major part of research regarding human and animal research.
  • Guidelines are established by the American Psychological Association (APA) for human and animal research.

Animals' APA Ethical Guidelines

  • Must have a clear scientific purpose.
  • Questions of research must be important.
  • Animals chosen must be suited for the question.
  • Animals must be cared for in a humane way.
  • Animals must be acquired legally.
  • The experimental procedures must be ones which employ the least amount of suffering possible.

Humans' APA Ethical Guidelines

  • No coercion. (participation must be voluntary)
  • Informed consent. (participants know and agree with what you're doing)
  • Anonymity/confidentiality: participants privacy protected.
  • Risk: as little as possible (physical and psychological).
  • Debriefing: after experiment is done, you inform participants about the nature of the experiment.

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