用户:Grotton JXz Donbrako/Psychology/Chapter 9

来自萌娘文库
< 用户:Grotton JXz Donbrako‎ | Psychology
Grotton JXz Donbrako（讨论 | 贡献）2022年3月17日 (四) 14:53的版本 （新条目）
(差异) ←上一版本 | 最后版本 (差异) | 下一版本→ (差异)
跳转至： 导航、 搜索

页面介绍

本页面所转载文章出自APPsychPrep网站所分享幻灯片[1]，由GJD转载。
转载时有改动，无任何原内容省略。

正文

Developmental Psychology

  • Developmental psychology is about how behaviors and thoughts change over a lifetime.
  • As you will see, developmental psychology involves some concepts covered in other chapters.
  • Nature vs. Nurture
  • The nature versus nurture debate involves the extent to which behaviors are a product of either inherited (i.e., genetic) or acquired (i.e., learned) influences.
  • This chapter begins by discussing influences from nature, and then moves into theories about nurture.
  • What research designs do developmental psychologists use?
  • Cross-sectional & Longitudinal Research
  • Cross-sectional research uses participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over the life span.
  • A developmental researcher might be interested in how memory changes as we age.
  • A cross-sectional research design may choose from different age groups of 10-19, 20-29, 30-39, etc. for the study.
  • Cross sectional research is criticized for effects of historical events and cultural trends.
  • An example is that school memorization may not have been tested as much in one person's lifetime compared to another.
  • Longitudinal research takes place over a long period of time with the same individuals. Individuals are tested on some variable after a defined length of time (e.g., every five years). Problems with longitudinal research are cost and tracking/accounting.

  • Our genes determine some of the abilities and traits we are born (e.g., hair and eye color, height). They could also determine some personality traits, but more research must be done.
  • Our prenatal (during pregnancy) environment is very important in our development.
  • Teratogens are certain chemicals that can cause harm if ingested or contracted by the mother.
  • The placenta, a temporary organ, can filter out many harmful substances, but teratogens pass through this barrier and affect the fetus.
  • 关于“胎盘”的网络图片可能会引起您的不适（涉及人体解剖云云，反正少不了一堆血），非必要请勿搜索。

  • Alcohol is a teratogen. A very harmful one. Even small amounts of alcohol can change the way the fetal brain develops.
  • Children whose mothers' drink heavily or even moderately are likely to develop fetal alcohol syndrome. Children born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) have small, malformed skulls and developmental disabilities.
  • Fetal alcohol effect: Children born with fetal alcohol effect do not show all the signs of FAS, but many have developmental problems.
  • Other psychoactive drugs can harm newborns.
  • Infants can be born addicted to a psychoactive drug if the mother was a heavy user during pregnancy.
  • Since the withdrawal symptoms can kill the infant, infants sometimes have to be put on a morphine drip to slowing wean them off substances they have absorbed through the placenta.

Infant Development

  • All babies exhibit a set of specific reflexes which are inborn, automatic processes to certain stimuli.
  • They are rooting, sucking, grasping (Palmer reflex), Moro, and Babinski.
  • Rooting reflex: When touched on the cheek, a baby will turn their head and attempt to put the object in its mouth.
  • Sucking reflex: The baby with suckle things put in its mouth.
  • Grasping (Palmer) reflex: If an object is placed into a baby’s palm, it will curl its fingers to grasp the object.
  • Moro reflex: When startled, a baby will fling his or her limbs out and then quickly retract them, making himself or herself as small as possible.
  • Banbinski reflex: When a baby’s foot is stroked, he or she will spread her big toe.
  • Youtube对于神经反射的介绍（英）：[2]
  • Babies enjoy sugar when they're born; other tastes develop with maturity.
  • Babies are born with very bad eye sight; they can only see 8-12 inches in front of them.
    • Vision improves with age.
  • Babies have a preference for faces and face-like objects; they are drawn to their mother’s face or close guardian.
  • Babies can hear even before birth, in the womb.

Motor development

  • Our motor control develops as neurons in our brain connect with one another and become myelinated.
  • Babies, on average, can roll over when the are 5.5 months, stand at about 8-9 months, and walk by about 15 months. However, any individual may be quicker or slower in development.

Attachment & Parenting (Style)

  • Konrad Lorenz established that some infant animals become attached to individuals or even objects they see during a critical period after birth.
  • Imprinting is when a newborn creature bonds to the type of animals it meets at birth and begins to model its behavior after them.
  • Harry Harlow raised baby monkeys with two artificial wire frame figures made to resemble mother monkeys.
  • One mother figure was fitted with a bottle the infant could eat from, and the other was wrapped in a soft material.
  • Harlow found that infant monkeys, when frightened, preferred the soft mother figure even over the figure that they fed from.
  • Harlow's studies demonstrate the importance of physical comfort in the formation of attachment with parents.
  • Harlow also noticed that monkeys raised by wire mothers became more stressed and frightened than monkeys raised with real mothers when put into new situations.
  • Mary Ainsworth: She put children into novel situations and observed their behavior when the parents left. She then categorized each child’s reaction.
  • She describes three attachment styles: Secure attachment, Avoidant attachment, Anxious/Ambivalent.
  • Secure attachment (66 percent of population): Child confidently explores the novel environment while the parents are present, is distressed when they leave, and goes to the parents when they return.
  • Avoidant attachment (21 percent of the population): Child may resist being held by the parents and will explore the novel environment. He or she does not go to the parents for comfort when they return after the absence.
  • Anxious/ambivalent attachment (12 percent of population): Child has ambivalent reactions to their parents. They may show extreme stress when the parents leave, but resist being comforted by them when they return.
  • Disorganized (not in Barron’s book): The child has an erratic relationship with the caretaker and with older adults.
    • This attachment style is more common is severe cases of neglect or abuse.
  • Diana嘉然 Baumrind: She researched parent-child interactions and described three overall categories of parenting styles: Permissive parenting, Authoritarian parenting, Authoritative parenting.
  • Permissive: Parents do not set clear guidelines for children. The rules that do exist in the family are constantly changed or are not enforced.
  • Authoritarian: Parents set strict standards for behavior and apply punishments for violations of the rules. Punishment for undesired behaviour is more often used than reinforcement for desired behavior.
  • Authoritativerrrrr: Parents have set, consistent standards for behavior and the standards are reasonable and explained. Authoritative parents praise as often as they punish. Explanations are encouraged in an authoritative house, and the rules are reasonable and consistent.
  • Other findings of Diana Baumrind’s research:
    • Children from authoritative homes are more socially capable and perform better than the academic average.
    • Children of permissive parents are more likely to have emotional control problems and are more dependent.
    • Authoritarian parents' children are more likely to distrust others and be withdrawn from peers.
  • Do we develop continually, at a steady rate from birth to death or is our development discontinuous (discontinuous meaning development starts and stops and may cease completely).
  • Stage Theories of Development: Continuity vs. Discontinuity

  • Stage Theories: Lev Vygotsky
  • Lev Vygotsky's concept of zone of proximal development is the range of tasks a child can perform independently and those tasks that the child needs assistance with.
  • Actual development is the range of tasks the child can perform now, and potential development is the ability the child could attain.
  • Teachers/parents can provide “scaffolds” for students to help them accomplish tasks at the upper end of their ‘zone of proximal development’, encouraging further independence and cognitive development.
  • Stage Theories: Sigmund Freud
  • Developed Psychosexual stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
  • Each one of these stages has a conflict we must resolve.
  • If we fail to resolve a significant conflict during one of these stages, Freud said we could become fixated in the stage, meaning we might remain preoccupied with the behaviors associated with that stage.
  • Oral Stage (0 to 1 year): In this stage, infants seek pleasure through their mouths. They tend to put everything they can grab into their mouths. Freud thought that people fixated at this stage might overeat, bite their nails, smoke, and have a childlike dependence on things.
  • Anal stage (1-3 years): This stage takes place during toilet training. If conflict around toilet training arises, a person might fixate and be overly controlling and orderly (retentive) or out of control and messy (expulsive).
  • Phallic stage (3-5 years): During this stage, the child realizes their gender and this causes conflict in the family. Freud described the process boys go though as the Oedipus complex: A time when a boy resents his father’s relationship with his mother. The process for girls is called the Electra complex: This is when a girl resents her mother's relationship with her father.
    • Not resolving this gender conflict leads to gender confusion and sexual deviancy.
  • Latency stage (5-6 years): Freud thought children go through a short latency stage, or period of calm, and between the ages of six and puberty experience low psychosexual anxiety.
  • Genital stage (puberty to adulthood): A child enters the genital stage where they remain for the rest of their lives. The focus of sexual pleasure is the genitals, and the fixation in this stage is what Freud considers normal: A long-lasting heterosexual relationship.
Stage Age Focus Development Adult Fixation
Oral 0-1 Mouth Weaning off breast feeding Smoking, overeating, nail-biting
Anal 1-3 Anus Toilet training Controlling/orderliness, disorganized/messiness
Phallic 3-5 Genitals Resolving oedipus/electra conflict Deviancy, sexual dysfunction
Latency 6-12 None Developing defence mechanisms None
Genital 12+ Genitals Reaching sexual maturity If other stages complete, sexually mature and mentally healthy
  • Stage Theories: Erik Erikson
  • Erikson is labelled a neo-Freudian because he adapted Freud's theories to fit his own thoughts and observations.
  • He adapted Freud's ideas and created the Psychosocial Stage Theory.
Stage Basic Conflict Important Event Outcome
Infancy
(birth to 18 months)		 Trust vs. mistrust Feeding Child develops sense of trust when caregivers provide reliable care; a lack of care leads to mistrust.
Early childhood
(2-3 years)		 Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Toilet training Child needs to develop personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence; success means a feeling of autonomy, failure means feelings of shame and doubt.
Preschool
(3-5 years)		 Initiative vs. guilt Exploration Child needs to assert control and power over environment; success leads to a sense of purpose; children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in guilt.
School age
(6-11years)		 Industry vs. inferiority School Child needs to cope with new social and academic demands; success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Adolescence
(12-18 years)		 Identity vs. role confusion Social relationships Teen needs to develop a sense of self and personal identity; success leads to an ability to stay true to oneself; failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
Young adulthood
(19-40 years)		 Intimacy vs. isolation Relationships Young adult needs to form intimate, loving relationships with other people; success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Middle adulthood
(40-65 years)		 Generativity vs. stagnation Work & parenthood Adult needs to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often through children or creating lasting positive change through career/work; success leads to feelings of usefulness, failure results in shallow involvement and feelings of stagnation.
Maturity
(65-death)		 Ego Integrity vs. despair Reflection in life Older adult needs to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment; success means feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
  • Stage Theories: Jean Piaget & Cognitive Development
  • Jean Piaget was working alongside Alfred Binet, the creator of the IQ test, when he began developing his own theories on cognitive development.
  • Schemata: A schemata or schema is a cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information. For example, a young child may first develop a schema for a horse. She knows that a horse is large, has hair, four legs, and a tail.
  • Assimilation: The ability to incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge.
    • For example, a two year old’s schema of a tree is “green and big with bark.” Over time the child adds information: some trees lose their leaves, some trees have red leaves, etc.. More information is added to the schema for tree as more experience and information are gained.
  • Accommodation: When new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas.
    • For example, a child develops a schema for a cat, but mistakenly calls a furry, four-legged animal with ears a cat when it is a dog.
  • Youtube上关于Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development的介绍视频（英）：[3]
  • According to Piaget, children go through a series of developmental stages. Piaget believed that these stages occur in a fixed order, and a child can be in only one stage at any given time.
Stage Age Description
Sensorimotor 0-2 Coordination of senses with motor response. Language used for demands and cataloguing. Object Permanence develops.
Pre-operational 2-7 Symbolic thinking, use of syntax and grammar, imagination and intuition develop. Egocentrism strong during this stage. Abstract thought and reasoning are non-existent.
Concrete operational 7-11 Concepts attached to concrete situations. Time, space, and quantity are understood, and applied. Hierarchical classification develops. Mastery of conversation.
Formal operational 11+ Theoretical and hypothetical thinking develop. Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy and planning develop. Concepts learned in one area can be applied in other domains. Displays metacognition.
  • Criticisms of Piaget
  • Many children go through the stages faster and enter them earlier than Piaget theorized.
  • Some believe his tests relied too heavily on language, biasing the results for older children.
  • An alternative to Piaget's theory
  • Information processing model states that our abilities to memorize, interpret, and perceive gradually develops as we age, rather than occurs in distinct stages; the process is continuous.

  • Theory of mind is a cognitive ability that develops in children around the age of four.
  • TOM is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge, etc.—to oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.
  • Psychologists use the "false belief task" to test the TOM.
  • Youtube上关于Theory of Mind的介绍视频（英）：[4]
  • When does our sense of right and wrong develop?
  • Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
  • Kohlberg’s Stages: Pre-conventional, Conventional, Post-conventional.
  • Pre-conventional: Most common in children. Individuals focus on direct consequences of actions for themselves. An action is perceived as wrong because the person is punished or good because the person is rewarded.
    • Examples of pre-conventional
      • Parent: Can you clean your room?
      • Child: Not now.
      • Parent: I will buy you ice cream at the mall.
      • Child: Okay!
      • Child: Cleaning my room is good because I get an ice cream.
    • Child2: I better put up my hand and ask to go to the washroom, if I don’t and I just leave, I might be in trouble!
  • Conventional: Most common in adolescents. An action is considered right or wrong by comparing it to society’s views and expectations.
    • Someone in the conventional stage might want to avoid littering, even if they know they will not get caught, because they've been taught that littering is wrong.
  • Post-conventional is a realization that individuals are separate from society, and the individual’s own perspective may override society’s expectation. Principles may be basic human rights, liberty, justice, and general welfare of the planet, animals, and humans.
    • The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. For example, protecting a life is more important than upholding laws regarding theft.
  • Carol Gilligan challenged Kohlberg that boys and girls develop differently.
  • According to Gilligan's research, boys have a more absolute view of what is moral while girls pay more attention to the situation.
  • Boys might have moral rules that apply in every context, while girls might want to know more about the situation and the people involved.
  • But research does not support Gilligan's claims about gender differences in moral development.

What is gender?

  • Gender: Identifying with some socially defined norm, such as male or female. Gender does not usually refer to biological or physiological characteristics normally associated with ‘male’ or ‘female’.
  • Children develop gender identity by age two or three. Developing sex-related roles, gender typing, occurs from ages two to seven. Children begin to learn that gender is fixed, gender constancy, at roughly the same age.
  • Gender Development
  • Gender differences vary widely between cultures. A behavior considered feminine in one culture, such as holding hands with a friend, might be considered gender neutral in another culture.
  • Gender and Biology
  • Biopsychological theories focus on the nature element of gender development (DNA, genes, proteins, neurotransmitters, hormones, brains, genitals).
  • One of the differences is that women, on average, have larger corpus callosum (this is part of the brain that connects each hemisphere). This difference may affect how the right and left hemispheres communicate and coordinate tasks, and therefore some of the differences between male and female behavior.
  • Freud views gender development as a competition. Young boys, unconsciously compete with their fathers' for their mothers' love. Girls compete with their mothers' for their fathers' love
  • Proper gender, development according to Freud, occurs when a child realizes that he or she cannot hope to beat their same-sex parent at this competition, and identifies with that sex.
  • Social and cognitive psychologists concentrate on the effects of society and our own thoughts about gender have on our development
  • For example, a social psychologist might observe that boys are more often encouraged in rough play than girls.
  • Cognitive psychologists focus on our internal interpretations that we make about the gender message we get from our environment when we’'re developing.
  • Gender-schema theory explains that we internalize messages about gender into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave.
  • If a girl sees that her little brother is encouraged to wrestle with their father, she creates a rule governing how boys should play.

原幻灯片(.ppsx)下载链接
（建议在下载后将后缀改成.ppt以方便观看与编辑）

  1. ↑ [1]
取自“https://library.moegirl.org.cn/index.php?title=用户:Grotton_JXz_Donbrako/Psychology/Chapter_9&oldid=26533”