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Personality Theories
- Personality is the unique set of attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that an individual has.
- Some examples of personality theories that do not neatly fit into any other school of thought:
- Type A and type B
- Individuals with a type A personality tend to feel a sense of time pressure and are easily angered. They are also competitive and ambitious.
- Individuals with a type B personality tend to be more relaxed and easy going.
- Psychoanalytic Theory
- Background Information
- Psychoanalytic theory posits that personality is determined by early childhood experiences, and remains mostly the same throughout the life.
- Dominant themes in psychoanalytic theory are sex, death, childhood, and the unconscious mind.
- Our conscious mind is all the current thoughts in your mind.
- Preconscious is just below consciousness; it’s what you’re not thinking about, but could be thinking about if you focused on it.
- Freud believed that a lot of people's behavior is controlled by a region of the mind he called the unconscious.
- We do not have access to the thoughts in our unconscious.
- Freud said that we spend a tremendous amount of energy trying to keep threatening thoughts in our unconscious mind.
- Freud posited that there were two types of instincts: Eros, the life instinct, which is the desire for sex, and Thanatos, the death instinct, which is seen as aggression.
- The Libido is the energy that directs the life instinct.
- Freud also posited the ego, superego, and ID.
- The ID is a part of the unconscious mind.
- The ID pursues immediate gratification. The ID exists from birth. It remains the same throughout a persons life and does not change with time or experience. The ID is not affected by reality, logic, or experience.
- The ego operates according to the reality principle, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave. Ego develops within 2-3 years of age.
- The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral about right and wrong taught by parents and society. Emerges around age 3-5.
| Psychoanalytic Theory | |
| ID | Largest portion of the mind. Unconscious, present at birth. Source of biological needs and desires. |
| Ego | Conscious, rational part of the mind. Emerges in early infancy. Redirects ID impulses acceptably. |
| Superego | The conscience. Develops around 3-5, from interactions with caregivers. |
- Example: As you cram for the AP psych exam, the ID tells you to go to sleep or go to the party (immediate gratification); the superego tells you to study because it is the right thing to do; the ego negotiates with both the ID and the superego, saying you will study for two hours, drop by the party, and then go to sleep.
| Defense Mechanisms | ||
| Repression | Repression is an unconscious mechanism employed by ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious. | During the Oedipus complex, aggressive thoughts about the same sex parents are repressed. |
| Denial | Denial involves blocking external events from awareness. If some situation is too much to handle, the person refuses to experience it. | Smokers may refuse to admit to themselves that smoking is bad. |
| Displacement | Satisfying an impulse, such as aggression with a substitute object. | Someone who is frustrated by their boss may go home and kick their dog. |
| Projection | Involves individuals attributing their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and motives to another person. | You may hate someone, but your superego tells you that hatred is unacceptable. You solve the internal problem by believing they hate you. |
| Regression | When one is faced with stress, this is movement back in psychological time. | A child may begin to suck their thumb again or wet the bed after a traumatic experience. |
| Sublimation | Satisfying an impulse, such as aggression, with a substitute object in a socially acceptable way. | Sports are an example of putting our emotions into something constructive. |
| Reaction Formation | Acting in exactly the opposite way to one’s unacceptable impulses. | Being overprotective of and lavishing praise on an unwanted acquaintance. |
| Rationalization | Creating false excuses for one’s unacceptable feelings, thoughts, or behavior. | Justifying cheating on an exam by saying "everyone else cheats." |
| Repression | Unknowingly placing an unpleasant memory or though in the unconscious. | Not remembering a traumatic incident in which you witnessed a crime. |
| Intellectualization | Dealing with emotional conflict or stress by excessive use of thinking and generalization. | After failing a test, making up a story about how statistically, you had to fail one test in all the tests you'd take. |
- There is little empirical support for a lot of Freud's ideas. Psychoanalytic theory is able to interpret both positive and negative reactions as support of the theory.
- For example, if someone denied psychoanalytic theory, saying it was nonsense, a psychoanalyst may say that person is undergoing denial because they cannot deal with the truth.
Criticisms of Psychoanalysis
- Freud was also criticized for overestimating the importance of early childhood and sex in shaping behavior.
- Contemporary research contradicts the idea that personality is essentially set by the age of five.
- Karen Horney and Nancy Chodorow criticized Freud's assumption that men were superior to women.
- Horney and Chodorow suggested that if women were envious of men, it was more likely to be all the advantages men enjoyed in society.
- Posited that men may suffer from womb envy; jealously of women's reproductive capabilities.
- Freud's impact on culture still exists today, though his psychological theory does not hold up to empirical evidence.
- Freud's terms like ego, unconscious, and denial are still widely used in everyday speech.
Jungian Theory
- Neo-Freudian Theories/Psychodynamic theory(Carl Jung & Alfred Adler)
- Jung proposed that the unconscious consists of two different parts: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.
- The personal unconscious, contained complexes, was the accumulation of experiences from a person's lifetime that could not be consciously recalled. It is similar to Freud's view of the unconscious.
- A complex is a personal unconscious, core pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a common theme.
- According to Jung's personality theory, complexes are building blocks of the psyche and the source of all human emotions.
- The collective unconscious "…does not develop individually but is inherited. It consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents."
- The collective unconscious is passed down through the species and explains certain similarities we see between cultures.
- The collective unconscious contains archetypes that Jung defined as universal concepts we all share as part of the human species.
- The shadow is an archetype that represents the dark side of personality.
- The persona is people's creation of a public image.
- There are a lot of other archetypes in Jungian theory: Creator, Caregiver, Ruler, Jester, Hero, Lover, Outlaw, Magician, Explorer, etc.
- Each has a core desire. For example, the Hero's core desire is to prove one's worth through courageous and difficult action.
Adlerian Theory
- Adler downplays the unconscious more than Freud, and believes people are motivated by the fear of failure, which he termed inferiority.
- They are also motivated by the desire to achieve: superiority.
- Adler also emphasizes the importance of birth order in shaping personality.
- Adler argued that birth order can leave an impression on an individual's style of life, which is one's habitual way of dealing with the tasks of friendship, love, and work.
- Firstborns are dethroned when a second child comes along, and this loss of perceived privilege and primacy may have a lasting influence on them. Middle children may feel ignored or overlooked. Younger and only children may be pampered and spoiled, which was suggested to affect their later personalities.
Trait Theories
- Trait theories posit that we can describe people's personalities by identifying general traits.
- Nomothetic approach: Some trait theorists believe that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people's personalities.
- Hans Eyesnck believed that by classifying all people along an introversion-extraversion scale and a stable-unstable scale, we could describe their personality entirely.
- Raymond Cattell developed the 16 personality factor test to measure what he believed were the 16 basic traits present in all people.
| Cattell's sixteen factors of personality | |||||||||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | ||
| reserved | outgoing | ||||||||
| less intelegent | more intelegent | ||||||||
| affected by feelings | emotionally stable | ||||||||
| submissive | dominant | ||||||||
| serious | happy-go-lucky | ||||||||
| expedent | conscientious | ||||||||
| timid | venturesome | ||||||||
| tough-minded | sensitive | ||||||||
| trusting | suspicious | ||||||||
| practical | imaginative | ||||||||
| forthright | shrewd | ||||||||
| self-assured | apprehensive | ||||||||
| conservative | experimenting | ||||||||
| group dependent | self-sufficient | ||||||||
| uncontrolled | controlled | ||||||||
| relaxed | tensed | ||||||||
- Paul Costa & Robert McCrae proposed that personality can be described using the Big Five Personality Traits: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness, and Emotional Stability (Neuroticism).
| The Big Five | ||
| Low Score | High Score | |
| Extroversion | Loner, Quiet, Passive, Reserved | Joiner, Talkative, Active, Affectionate |
| Agreeableness | Suspicious, Critical, Ruthless, Irritable | Trusting, Lenient, Soft-hearted, Good-natured |
| Conscientiousness | Negligent, Lazy, Disorganized, Late | Conscientious, Hard-working, Well-organized, Punctual |
| Openness | Down-to-Earth, Uncreative, Conventional, Uncurious | Imaginative, Creative, Original, Curious |
| Neuroticism/Emotional Stability | Calm, Even-Tempered, Comfortable, Unemotional | Worried, Temperamental, Self-conscious, Emotional |
Idiographic Theories
- Idiographic theories assert that using the same set of terms to classify all people is impossible.
| Idiographic | Nomothetic |
| Focus on the individual and recognition of uniqueness | Attempts to establish laws and generalizations |
| Private, subjective, and conscious experiences | Objective knowledge through scientific method |
| Investigations gain written information unique to individual under study | Investigations gain numerical data or data that can be categorized |
- Gordon Allport suggested that to understand and predict behaviour, you need to look at a person's individual traits.
- Cardinal Trait: A trait that defines and dominates one’s personality and behaviour.
- Central Traits: Refer to general characteristics that form the foundation of someone. These are characteristics by which you might describe a person. They might be honest, hard-working, and punctual.
- Secondary Traits: These are traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences, and usually only appear in certain situations or under specific circumstances (e.g., panic attack during a public speech or anger while waiting in line).
- A person's cardinal trait could be sociability, because they're always socializing.
Biological Theories of Personality
- History: Hippocrates, born 460 BCE, believed that personality was determined by the relative levels of four humors (fluids) in the body.
- The humors were blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.
- Someone was unhealthy when there was an imbalance of humors.
- Present: Genes, neurotransmitters, hormones, and other physiological characteristics determine how a person behaves.
- Heritability: a statistic that estimates the degree of genetic variation.
- Things like height, eye colour, skin colour, and hair colour are related to specific genes. These traits have a high heritability.
- An estimate for the heritability of intelligence is between 50-70%
- Evidence suggests that genes are involved in a person’s temperament.
- William Sheldon's Somatotype Theory: Sheldon identified three different body types and argued that certain personality traits were associated with each of the body types.
| Somatotype Theory | ||
| Type | Character | Shape |
| Endomorph | Relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful | Round and plump |
| Mesomorph | Active, assertive, vigorous, combative | Muscular |
| Ectomorph | Quiet, fragile, restrained, non-assertive, sensitive | Lean, delicate, less muscle |
Behavioral Theories
- Behaviorists argue that behavior is personality and that the way most people think of the term personality is meaningless.
- 'Personality' is determined by the environment.
- The reinforcement contingencies to which one is exposed creates one's 'personality'.
- By changing a person’s environment, a behaviorist believes they can alter 'personality'.
- Radical behaviorists, like B.F. Skinner, are criticized for failing to recognise the importance of cognition (thinking) in personality.
Social Cognitive Theories
- Albert Bandura (Bobo Doll Experiment) suggested that personality is created by an interaction between the person (traits), the environment, and the person's behavior.
- His model is based on the idea of triadic reciprocality known as reciprocal determinism.
- Reciprocal Determinism Example:
- Taylor is friendly (trait)
- Influences her behavior: She talks a lot
- Influences her environment: She is more likely to go to parties where she will talk a lot
- Her environment influences her behavior: the more she talks, the more friendly she thinks she is, and the more parties she goes to, the more she talks…
- Bandura also posited that personality is affected by people's self-efficacy.
- Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in his or her innate ability to achieve goals.
- People with a high self-efficacy are optimistic about their ability to get things done while people with low self-efficacy feel powerless.
- George Kelly proposed the personal-construct theory of personality.
- Personal-construct theory argues that people, in their attempts to understand their world, develop their own, individual systems of personal constructs.
- Such constructs consist of pairs of opposites such as fair-unfair, smart-dumb, and exciting dull.
- People then use these constructs to evaluate their worlds. Kelly believed that people's behavior is determined by how they interpret the world.
- His theory is based on a fundamental postulate that states that people's behavior is influenced by their cognitions and that by knowing how people have behaved in the past, we can predict how they will act in the future.
- Julian Rotter: Locus of Control (LoC).
- A person can be described as having either an internal locus of control or an external locus of control.
- People with an internal locus of control feel as if they are responsible for what happens to them.
- People with an external locus of control generally believe that luck and other forces outside of their own control determine their destinies.
- Positive outcomes have been associated with having an internal locus of control.
- Compared with externals, internals tend to be healthier, more politically active, and do better in school.
Humanistic Psychology
- Humanistic theories of personality view people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through freewill.
- Humanistic theories focus on the importance of a person's self-concept and self-esteem.
- Self-concept is made up of one's ideas, self-knowledge, and the social self to form the self as whole.
- It includes the past, present, and future selves, where future selves (or possible selves) represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, or what they are afraid of becoming.
- One's self-concept is related to their self-esteem.
- Self-esteem reflects an individual's overall subjective emotional evaluation of their own worth.
- It is the decision made by an individual as an attitude towards the self.
- Abraham Maslow & The Hierarchy of Needs
- Each individual's personality may be unique, but we all face the same set of needs.
- Self-actualization is reaching your full potential as a person.
- (其他引用了此图片的章节：Chapter 1, Chapter 13.)
- Assessment Tests help identify individual differences in personality.
- Projective tests are often used by psychoanalysts.
- They involved asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli.
- Rorschach inkblot tests involve showing people a series of inkbots
可将此图放置于百度识图里以获取更多忍冬纹
- Thematic Apperception Test is a projective psychological test.
- Proponents of the technique assert that subjects' responses, in the narratives they make up about ambiguous pictures of people, reveal their underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world.
- Psychoanalysts believe that people's interpretations reflect their unconscious thoughts.
- In scoring projective tests, an analyst must take in the description the participant gives, but must watch how the person holds the card or picture, the way they turn it, and the way they focus on it.
- Many believe that projective tests are unreliable.
- Self-report Inventories are questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselves.
你是职业选手吗？“我觉得我是。”
- The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-1/2/3/etc.)
- 567 true/false questions.
- 18 years and older.
- Takes 60/90 minutes to complete.
- 10 clinical scales that assess dimensions of personality.
- Has 9 validity scales to detect response styles.
- Barnum Effect: People have he tendency to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality.
