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Social Psychology

  • Social psychology focuses on development and expression of attitudes, attributions, how we are influenced and how we influence, and how we interact.
  • Social Loafing: The tendency for any individual of a group to put in less effort as a result of being in a large group.
  • Social cognition discusses attitude formation and attribution theory.
    • The idea behind social cognition is that people act like scientists; that is, they are constantly gathering data and making predictions about what will happen, and trying to act accordingly.
  • Attitude: An attitude is a set of beliefs and feelings.
    • Do attitudes always predict behavior?
    • Richard LaPiere travelled around the United States in the 1930s with an Asian couple, and found that the Asian couple was treated poorly due to their race only on occassion.
    • Later, he contacted the establishments they visited and asked employees/management whether they would serve Asians; the establishments said they would not serve Asians.
  • Stereotypes: Are attitudes about what members of different groups are like.
  • Prejudice is an undeserved, negative, attitude toward a group of people.
  • Discrimination is treating categories of people of race, age, sex, gender, or ability differently.
  • Ethnocentrism: The belief that one’s culture is superior to others.
  • If you change someone’s behavior, can you change their attitude?
  • Cognitive Dissonance Theory is based on the idea that people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors.
  • When someone's behavior does not match their beliefs, they experience mental tension or "dissonance".
  • Someone who wants to live a long healthy life will experience cognitive dissonance if they are a heavy smoker.
  • Leon Festinger & James Carlsmith conducted a famous experiment where participants experienced cognitive dissonance.
  • Participants completed a boring task (twisting, turning some knobs).
  • After finishing, the participants were told that for either $1 or $20, depending on the group they were in, to lie about the boring task being great to the next participant (actually a part of the experiment).
  • After they were paid to tell the next ‘participant’ that the task was interesting, their attitudes were record on a brief survey.
    • The group paid only $1, having known the task was boring, but having to say it was interesting, experienced dissonance.
    • Those who had been paid $20, a high reward, did not experience dissonance, and reported on the survey that the task was boring.�
  • Those who had been paid only one dollar, a small reward, changed their belief about the task and said it was somewhat interesting on the later survey.
  • Attribution Theory tries to explain how people determine the cause of what they observe.
  • Attributions are either dispositional (internal, referring to one's personality or set of skills, talent, innate ability, or IQ) or situational (beyond the person's immediate control).
    • Say someone cuts you off in traffic. Is it because they are a terrible driver (dispositional) or because their driving to the hospital for an emergency (situational)?
  • Attributions can also be Stable or Unstable
    • Robert is a math whiz and always does well in math. This is a person-stable attribution.
    • Robert simply studied very hard for this test. This is a person-unstable attribution.
    • Robert’s teacher, Mr. Smith always gives easy math tests. This is a situation-stable attribution.
    • Mr. Smith, Robert’s teacher, gave one easy test. This is a situation-unstable attribution.
  • Harold Kelly explains that the kind of attributions people make are based on three kinds of information: Consistency, Distinctiveness, and Consensus.
  • Consistency refers to how similarly the individual acts over time (does this person always do this?).
  • Distinctiveness refers to how similar some situation is to other situations in which you’ve seen somebody act (did they act like this before?).
  • Consensus refers to taking into consideration how others in the same situation would have acted (would someone else have done this?).
  • Fundamental Attribution Error: When looking at the behavior of others, people tend to overestimate the importance of dispositional (personality) factors and underestimate situational factors.
  • In addition, people are more likely to view others behavior as dispositional, but in judging their own behavior, they are more likely to say that their behavior depends on the situation.
  • Different cultures may commit the fundamental attribution error less often.
  • Individualist cultures emphasize the importance and uniqueness of the individual (error occurs in these cultures more often).
  • Collectivist cultures emphasize a person's link to various groups like family or a company (error does not occur as often in these kinds of cultures).
  • Additional terms regarding social cognition and attribution theory.
  • False-consensus effect: The tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them.
  • Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute our success to personal/internal factors, but attribute our failures to situational/external factors.
  • Just-world Bias: The belief that good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people.
  • How can you make an argument more persuasive?
  • When presenting are argument, is it better to present the facts in a straightforward manner or dress up the message with nice sounds and images?
  • Central Route of Persuasion focuses on details, statistics, and facts about the object or service to persuade an audience.
  • Peripheral Route of Persuasion is using tactics other than the facts or logical arguments to persuade an audience.
    • These could be using an attractive person, flashing lights, pleasant sounds, an authoritative figure, or something else.
  • Youtube关联视频链接：Psychology of Persuasion.

  • Some research suggests that people who have attained a higher education are less likely to be swayed by the peripheral route.
  • Research also suggests that when presenting to a uniform audience, a one-sided message is better.
  • When presenting to a broader audience, it is better to show both the pros and cons of the object or service.
  • Another possible way to make a message more persuasive is to repeatedly show it.
  • Mere Exposure Effect: Even if you've only seen something once, you're more likely to have a positive attitude towards it over something that you've never encountered before.
  • Is there anyway to increase the likelihood that you'll do what I ask?
  • Compliance Strategies:
  • Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: If you get people to agree to a small request (do you have the time?), they will be more likely to agree to a larger follow-up request (can you spare a dollar?).
  • Door-in-the-face: If you want something, ask for something really big before asking for what you really want (can I have $5? “No” Can I have $1?).
  • Norms of Reciprocity: The idea that if you do something nice for someone else, they’ll do something nice in return.
  • Do others' expectations affect our behavior and performance?
  • In the 1960s, Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson hypothesized that a teacher's expectation could influence a child's performance.
  • Study: They randomly assigned five children to the "spurter/bloomer" group, but told teachers these students were selected based on test performance that indicated future success.
  • Findings: The children who were expected to "spurt" made larger improvements than the others.
  • Self-fulfilling Prophecy/Pygmalion effect/Rosenthal effect is the phenomenon whereby others' expectations of a person affect that person's performance.
  • Opposite of this effect is called the Golem effect.

  • Does performing in front of a crowd help or hinder us?
  • Social Facilitation: If it is an easy task, a person will perform better in front of an audience.
  • Social Impairment: When the task being observed is a difficult task, being watched by many people, performance decreases.
  • Psychology of Aggression & Prosocial Behavior
  • Instrumental aggression is when the aggressive act is intended to secure a particular end.
  • Hostile aggression Has no clear purpose, like some acts of vandalism.
  • Frustration-aggression hypothesis holds that the feeling of frustration makes aggression more likely.
  • 'Is there any way we can make hostile groups get along?
  • The Robbers Cave study‘’‘’ focused on intergroup behavior, observing 22 eleven- and twelve-year-old boys.
  • The children were split into two teams and forced to compete for rewards.
  • Eventually things became so hostile between the two groups that researchers intervened.
  • Contact Theory if hostile groups are made to work toward a superordinate goal that benefits all and necessitates participation from all, then animosity will be reduced between the two groups.
  • Prosocial behavior: Acts which help other people.
  • Bystander effect: The larger the number of people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely any one is to intervene.
    • Youtube关联视频链接：Bystander effect.
    • One explanation for the bystander effect is the diffusion of responsibility.
  • Diffusion of Responsibility: The larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels that they are for helping.
  • Pluralistic ignorance: People tend to assume that someone else will take action so they need not do it themselves.
  • What makes us like or dislike other people?
  • Research indicates that we like people who are similar to us, with whom we come in frequent contact, and who return our positive feelings.
  • Factors that influence liking are similarity, proximity, and reciprocal liking.
  • Psychology of Attraction
  • Research has demonstrated that attractive people are perceived as having all sorts of characteristics and attributes that you could not infer from just looks.

  • People may perceive this man as more honest, hard-working, ambitious, etc.
  • What makes someone physically attractive?
  • Research findings show that people who have very symmetrical features are judged as more attractive.

  • Psychology of Love
  • Love is hard to define.
  • Self-disclosure is when one shares a piece of personal information with another.
  • Close relationships with friends and intimate others are often built through a process of self-disclosure.
  • To what extent do social forces alter people's opinions and actions?
  • Soloman Asch's Conformity studies:
  • Groups of students participated in a simple "perceptual" task.
  • All but one of the participants were actors, and the true focus of the study was about how the remaining participant would react to the actors' behavior.
  • Youtube相关视频链接：Conformity studies by Asch
  • Stanley Milgram
  • Can you make someone more obedient?
  • Milgram measured the willingness of participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience.
  • 65 percent (26 of 40) of experiment participants administered the experiment's final massive 450-volt shock.
  • Youtube相关视频链接：Milgram Obedience Study
  • Psychology of Groups: How do people act in groups?
  • Norms are rules about how group members should act.
    • Being a lawyer at an established law firm means going into work well-dressed, prepared, etc.
  • Roles are the actions we carry out in a group.
    • The corporate lawyer takes on legal cases dealing with business arrangements/disagreements.
  • In-group: Who you perceive as within your own circle. People view the members of their own group as more diverse than people of the out-group. There is also a preference for member’s of your in-group. This is called in-group bias.
  • Out-group: Everyone outside your group.
  • Out-group Homogeneity: Viewing the out-group as all the same.
  • Group Polarization is the tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions that individual group members would not make on their own.
    • Explanations for group polarization include that in a group, individuals may be exposed to new arguments they had no previous exposure to and that the responsibility of the success or failure of some plan is diffused among the group – deindividuation (see slide ahead).
  • Groupthink, describes the tendency for some groups to make bad decisions, occurs when group members suppress their reservations about the ideas supported by the group, and, as a result, a false sense of unanimity is encouraged.
  • Deindividuation: People may get swept up by a group and do things they would never have done if on their own such as rioting or looting.
  • Philp Zimbardo & The Stanford Prison "Experiment"
  • The Stanford Prison Experiment was a social psychology experiment that attempted to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers.
  • Is the person inherently bad or does the situation/role/institution make him bad?
  • Youtube相关视频链接：Stanford Prison Experiment

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