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Abnormal psychology

  • Abnormal psychology is the study of people who suffer from psychological disorders.
  • Abnormal psychology studies depression, substance abuse, learning difficulties, mental disorders, and more.
  • a) The behavior is maladaptive/disturbing to the individual.
  • b) The behavior is disturbing to others.
  • c) The behavior is not shared by many members of society.
  • d) It is irrational; the behavior does not make sense to the average person.
  • Insanity is a legal term, not a psychological one.
  • If one is found to be insane, the person cannot be held fully responsible for their actions.
    • This may be because they had a psychological disorder which impaired their judgement.
  • Psychologists use a book called the Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorders (DSM).
  • It provides a way for psychologists to diagnose patients.
  • It is revised every so often, currently on its 5th edition.
  • Disorders are reclassified every so often.
  • Homosexuality was reclassified in some previous edition.
    • 000-x63 Sexual deviation
    • This diagnosis is reserved for deviant sexuality which is not symptomatic of more extensive syndromes, such as schizophrenic and obsessional reactions.
    • The term includes most of the casesformally classed as "Psychopathic personality with pathologic sexuality." The diagnosis will specify the type of pathologic behavior, such as homosexuality, transvestism, pedophilia, fetishism and sexual sadism (including rape, sexual assault, mutilation).
Psychological School/Perspective Etiology/Cause of the Disorder
Psychology Analytic/dynamic Internal, unconscious drives
Humanistic Failure to strive to one's potential or being in touch with one's feelings
Behavioral Reinforcement history, environment
Cognitive Irrational, dysfunctional thoughts or ways of thinking
Biomedical/Neuroscience Organic problems, biomedical imbalances, genetic predispositions
  • Phobia is an intense unwarranted fear of a situation or object.
    • Such as claustrophobia, fear of enclosed spaces, or arachnophobia, fear of spiders.
  • Agoraphobia is a fear of open, public spaces. People with extreme agoraphobia may not venture outside their home.
  • Social anxiety disorder is a fear of a situation in which one could embarrass oneself in public such as when eating or walking.
  • Generalized Anxiety Disorders (GAD) is when someone experiences a constant, low-level anxiety.
  • Panic disorder is when someone suffers from acute episodes of intense anxiety without any justifiable cause.
  • Psychoanalytic theorists see anxiety as the result of conflicts among the desires of the ID, ego, and superego.
    • Anxiety may arise when a woman wants to pursue her father (ID) while being restrained by the superego.
  • Behaviorists assume all behaviors are learned and that phobias, like arachnophobia, arise out of reinforcement. Maybe you were bit by a spider, now you’re scared of spiders.
  • A cognitive theorist would say that anxiety results from dysfunctional ways of thinking; anxiety may result from an unrealistic expectation you have of yourself.
    • "I will get 100% on the AP psych exam" or "If I don't get 100%, my life will be ruined forever!"
  • Somatoform disorders occur when a person 'manifests' psychological problems through a physiological symptom.
    • Somatoform disorder is an umbrella term for the conversion disorder.
  • Conversion disorder: People report the existence of a severe physical problem such as paralysis or blindness, and will be unable to move their arms and legs.
    • However no biological explanation is found by medical professionals.
  • Hypochondriasis: Complaining frequently about physical problems for which doctors are unable to find a cause.
  • An individual with hypochondriasis is known as a hypochondriac.
  • Hypochondriacs become unduly alarmed about any physical or psychological symptoms they detect, no matter how minor the symptom may be, and are convinced that they or others have, or are about to be diagnosed with, a serious illness
  • Psychoanalysts would assert that somatic symptom disorders are merely outward manifestations of unconscious conflicts.
  • Behaviorists would say that the disorder is reinforced.
  • Dissociative disorders involve a disruption in conscious processes.
  • Dissociative amnesia is when a person cannot recall information or memories and no physiological basis from the disruption in memory can be identified.
  • Organic amnesia is when amnesia happens naturally; occurs with age.
  • Dissociative fugue, formerly fugue state is a rare psychiatric disorder characterized by reversible amnesia for personal identity, including the memories, personality, and other identifying characteristics of individuality.
  • The state can last days, months or longer.
  • Dissociative fugue usually involves unplanned travel or wandering, and is sometimes accompanied by the establishment of a new identity.
  • Dissociative identity disorder: previously called multiple personality disorder, is when a person has several personalities rather than one integrated personality.
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  • Psychoanalytic theorists believe that dissociative disorders result when an extremely traumatic event has been so thoroughly repressed that a split in consciousness results.
  • However, cases of dissociative disorders are rare outside the United States, and where the number increased dramatically in the last century.
  • Critics judge it as role-play.

Mood

  • Mood or affective disorder is characterized by extreme or inappropriate emotions.
  • Major depressive disorder, also called unipolar depression, is the most common mood disorder.
    • People remain depressed or unhappy, in the absence of a clear reason, for as little as two weeks.
  • Major depressive disorder may also result in a loss of appetite, fatigue, changes in sleep patterns, lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities and feelings of worthlessness.
  • Seasonal affective disorder (SAD): People experience depression during certain times of the year, usually winter, when there is less sunlight.
  • Psychoanalysts believe depression is the product of anger directed inward, loss during the early psychosexual stages, or an overly punitive (punishing) superego.
  • Aaron Beck, a cognitive theorist, views depression as the result of unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, the world, and their future.
  • Cognitive Triad:

  • A person's attributional style, also known as their explanatory style, describes how they tend to, often unconsciously, explain various life events to themselves.
  • When someone forms an explanation, it involves three factors.
  • Whether they see the cause of the event as internal or external
  • For example, if someone does well at a new video game some internal explanations may be, "I'm good at games" or, "I'm quick to learn how to play games from this genre."
  • An external explanation may be, "This game is easy" or, "The person I'm playing against is making a bunch of mistakes."
  • Whether they see the situation as stable or unstable
  • For example, if someone gets stuck in traffic on their way to work a more stable explanation might be, "The traffic in this city has gotten steadily worse. It's going to be like this from now on."
  • A more unstable explanation is, "The traffic is bad today, but it could be fine tomorrow. It varies."
  • Whether they see the event as having a more global effect on their lives or if it's specific
  • For example, if a person makes a new type of error at work, a global explanation would be, "I'm probably going to start making more mistakes on the job in general."
  • A specific explanation is, "I have a hard time with this new database software, but that doesn't mean the rest of my work will suffer."
  • People who tend to make internal, global, and stable attributions for bad events are more likely to be depressed.
  • The same people tend to make external, specific, and unstable attributions when good things happen to them.
  • Biological explanations for depression: Low levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, has been linked with major depressive disorder.
  • Depression is also more likely to occur in families, that is, it has a genetic component.
  • Bipolar disorder formerly known as manic depression, involves both depressed and manic states.
  • A manic state is a feelings of lots of energy, confidence, power, and in some cases, anxiousness and irritable.
  • Mania is then followed by depression. Depression is the opposite of mania.
  • People have reported working and feeling energetic for days, before falling into a depressed state.
  • People in the manic state often engage in risky and poorly thought out behavior: gambling, criminal behavior, irresponsible sexual behavior.

  • 此图片被鉴定为涉不良（淫秽）信息，聪明的大家能看出原因吗。
  • Schizophrenia is distorted thinking, delusions, hallucinations, disorganized language, and unusual motor behavior (movement).
    • Symptoms of Schizophrenia, delusions, are beliefs that have no basis in reality.
    • Common types of delusions, delusions of persecution, are the belief that people are out to get you.
    • Delusions of grandeur are the belief that you enjoy greater power and influence than you actually do.
  • Hallucinations are perceptions in the absence of any sensory stimulation.
  • Schizophrenics' language use also differs:
    • Neologisms: Made up words.
    • Clang associations: String together nonsense words that rhyme.
    • Flat affect: They may also have no emotional response at all.
  • Catatonia: Remaining motionless in strange positions for hours at a time.

  • Waxy flexibility: Schizophrenics allow their body to be moved into any alternative shape and will then hold that new pose.

  • Symptoms of schizophrenia are divided into two types: Positive and negative.
  • Positive symptoms refer to excesses in behavior, thought, or mood such as neologisms and hallucinations.
  • Negative symptoms are flat affect (no emotional response) and catatonia.
  • Dopamine hypothesis: High levels of dopamine seem to be associated with schizophrenia.
  • Evidence for the dopamine hypothesis comes from the use of antipsychotic drugs that lower dopamine levels, however, if one is given too much of these, it results in muscles tremors and stiffness called tardive dyskinesia.

  • Schizophrenia patients may exhibit morphological changes in the brain like enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles (15% larger).

  • Figure 14.19: Schizophrenia and the ventricles of the brain.
  • Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates around the brain and spinal cord.
  • The hollow cavities in the brain filled with CSF are called ventricles.
  • The four ventricles in the human brain are depicted here.
  • Recent studies with CT scans and MRI scans suggest that an association exists between enlarged ventricles in the brain and the occurrence of schizophrenic disturbance.

  • Some research has suggested that negative symptoms are linked to genetic factors, whereas positive symptoms tend to be related to abnormalities in dopamine levels.
  • Double Binds (not related to double blind design in research methods)
  • Certain environments may cause or increase the likelihood of developing schizophrenia.
  • A double bind is when a person is given contradictory messages.
    • For example, when growing up, Sally is cautioned by parents against acting promiscuously, but her parents give her provocative outfits as gifts.
  • Environmental Stressors & Schizophrenia:
  • This model states that environmental stressors can provide the circumstances under which a biological predisposition for illness, like schizophrenia, can express itself.
  • Diathesis-stress model: Identical twins do not always both suffer from schizophrenia, because schizophrenia may result from an environmental factor that is not in the other's environment.
  • Personality disorders are well-established, maladaptive ways of behaving that negatively affect one's ability to function.
  • Antisocial personality disorder: People with this disorder have little or no regard for others' feelings.
    • They view the world as a hostile place where people need to look out for themselves; criminals have a high incidence of antisocial personality disorder.
  • Dependent personality disorder: People who rely too much on others.
  • Paranoid personality disorder: Constantly feel persecuted.
  • Narcissistic personality disorder: Involves seeing oneself as the center of the universe.
  • Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: Persistent unwanted thoughts (obsessions) (e.g., germs) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in an action (e.g., washing hands).
  • Post-traumatic stress disorder involves flashbacks or nightmares following a person's involvement in or observation of an extremely troubling event such as war, natural disaster, or traumatic personal event.
  • Psychosexual disorders are marked by the sexual attraction to an object, person, or activity not usually seen as sexual.
    • Pedophilia: Attraction to children.
    • Zoophilia: Attraction to an animal other than a human.
    • Fetishism: Attraction to objects (like shoes).
  • Anorexia is being a significantly lower weight for one's age and size, and an intense fear of food and fat.
    • Anorexic's also have a distorted body image.
  • Bulimia commonly involves binge-purge cycles in which a person eats large amounts of food and then vomits or takes laxatives to rid the food.
  • Substance related and addictive disorders is a diagnosis made when the use of such substances or behaviors like gambling or drugs negatively affect one's life.
  • Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) involves developmental problems.
    • ADHD is more common in boys.
    • Children with ADHD may have difficulty paying attention or sitting still.
    • Critics of ADHD suggest that this type of behavior is typical of young boys and is over diagnosed.
  • Alzheimer's disease is a form of dementia.
  • It is a deterioration of cognitive abilities, often most dramatically in memory.
  • It is progressive.
  • It is associated with beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
  • The Rosenhan Study, the Influence of a Label, is considered an important and influential criticism of psychiatric diagnosis.

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